King Henry VI of England looking every inch the mild mannered simpleton that he was.

When Joan of Arc was executed at Rouen in May 1431, Henry VI was but nine years of age. The Maid might be gone, but the prospect of a France ruled by the English crown was very far from becoming a reality. In 1435, England’s great allies the Burgundians, withdrew from the alliance when Duke Philip of Burgundy decided to back King Charles VII of France. It was a hefty blow and one that Henry took very personally. The 13 year old monarch wept uncontrollably when he heard the news and this betrayal haunted him for the rest of his life.

‘Oh dear Duke Philip, your betrayal of me is one so dreadfully cruel!

I trusted you as a faithful friend and now I feel such a wretched fool!’

Henry’s father, the illustrious warrior Henry V, had charged his three brothers with the care of the young king. However, in 1437 aged fifteen, Henry decided that he was able to make his own decisions. His mother, Catherine of Valois had died in January and a royal scandal was uncovered.

The dreadful scandal of Queen Catherine and Owen Tudor.

Henry’s mother, Catherine of Valois had scandalised the nation when it was discovered that she was having an affair with a lowly born Welsh commander, Owen Tudor.

‘Who ever heard of a Queen taking a common soldier to her bed!

The king’s mother has taken leave of her senses, she has clearly lost her head!’

Owen Tudor

For someone of regal birth to become romantically involved with a person so beneath their own social station, was a terrible scandal. The young king would flush with embarrassment whenever anyone mentioned the Queen or her lover.

‘Queen  Catherine had granted her affections to a Welsh soldier of low birth!

To the royal family it was a source of  great shame, to others, a cause for sniggering mirth!’

Catherine was the widow of the great Henry V. What was she thinking of by becoming entangled with this Welshman of base birth? Owen and the Queen had four children together. The Duke of Gloucester was outraged and he had Tudor jailed, while Catherine was to be enclosed in a religious house. Obviously, the young king must have been greatly embarrassed by the sordid episode, but the matter abated when Catherine died early in 1437 at an abbey in Bermondsey.

Bermondsey Abbey,

With the Burgundians having deserted the English cause in France and his mother’s outrageous behaviour with Owen Tudor, Henry’s rule had not had an auspicious beginning. Would things improve?

The 23rd of May 1430 saw the end of Joan’s illustrious military career.

‘At Compiegne in the heat of battle, Joan was thrown from her saddle!

Captured by the Burgundians, was she now up the creek without a paddle?

Joan was now the prisoner of the commander of the forces, Jean de Luxembourg.  At this point Joan, who considered herself to be a soldier, expected to be ransomed and returned to the service of King Charles VII. Nevertheless, she made a number of unsuccessful attempts to escape.

‘Now in captivity, Joan expected to be freed after the payment of a ransom!

Of course, the price for the return of such a prize, would be a sum most handsome!’

However, this was not to be. The English were determined to lay their hands on the Maid. Joan was indeed ransomed, but not back to the loyal people of France! In November the Burgundians sold Joan to the English for 10,000 livres.

‘Blood money! English money for Joan’s flesh and blood!

The tears of  the loyal French poured down their cheeks in a flood!’

The Maid was transported to Rouen for trial on many charges, including murder and dressing as a man.

‘But what was the attitude of Charles VII, the king?

In his mind, did not a multitude of alarm bells ring?’

Clearly, the king was greatly disturbed but what could he do? Charles knew full well that the English would never hand Joan back no matter what ransom they were offered. She had humiliated them on the field of battle and for that she had to die. Joan was to be tried by the Church and the presiding judge was to be Pierre Cauchon, Bishop of Beauvais.

The trial of Joan of Arc.

Her trial began on February 21st 1431 in Rouen. The charges against her consisted of: blasphemy, claiming to be able to tell the future, holding the belief that she had already been assured of salvation and wearing men’s clothing. Her claims that she had received commands directly from God were of particular concern to the judges.

Bishop Cauchon presiding at the trial of Joan of Arc.

The judges urged Joan to renounce her assertions about receiving orders from God, and repent her actions. This Joan refused to do, and weeks went by. On May 23rd 1431, the court handed down its verdict. The next day, Joan was taken to the cemetery of the abbey of Saint-Ouen  to hear her sentence pronounced in the presence of the general public. That sentence was to be death by fire. However, if she were to recant her assertions regarding voices, she would be spared the agonies of the stake.

‘You will escape death by fire, if you say that you never actually heard the mysterious heavenly voices!

Imprisoned for life and branded a blasphemous liar, but allowed to live! Boy, don’t you get some damn horrible choices!’

At the last moment, Joan changed her mind and declared that she would submit to Mother Church. She announced that she renounced her previous statements regarding her visions and voices. She swore that never again would she don the garb of a man and promised to dress as a woman should. As a consequence of this confession she was spared the stake and was sentenced to life imprisonment. The populace were furious, they wished to see this witch put to death at the stake. Their howls of indignation raised the roofs of the city of Rouen. Joan was taken back to her cell to begin her life of perpetual imprisonment.

‘But back in the solitude of her prison cell, Joan decided to disown her recantation!

She now announced to Cauchon that her confession at Saint-Ouen was an aberration!’

On May 29th she was visited by Cauchon in her cell. He saw that she was attired in male clothing, and he expressed his displeasure that she had broken her promise. Thus, Joan now pronounced a death sentence on herself. There was to be no turning back from death by fire. Her only path forward was the one that led to the stake, the funeral pyre.

‘Facing a life which offered nothing but a situation so dreadfully dire!

Joan opted for an immediate death atop a prepared pyre!’

The call of the executioner.

‘A crude cap was placed upon her condemned head!

The inscription, a tissue of lies which read!

 Idolater and heretic!

These words would make every decent Christian sick!’ 

On the morning of May 30th, Joan was led from her cell in the castle and placed on a cart and transported to the market place of Rouen. Upon her head was a cap bearing the inscriptions ‘idolater” and ‘heretic’ The crowds lining the streets were immense. She was accompanied by a friar, Brother Martin, who had heard her confession and from whom she had received holy communion. Joan was then tied to the stake, clutching a crucifix that she had been given. The executioner lit the pyre and the flames roared high. Very soon Joan, the Maid of Orleans was dead.

 

Charles VII is crowned at Reims.

‘Oh  for the French, 1429, what a glorious summer!

As for the English, well, they never felt dumber!

Orleans! Oh Orleans! What a victory, the French did gush!

And well they might,  for there, they gave the English army, the bum’s rush!’

Target Paris!

Despite the celebrations surrounding the coronation, there was little time for relaxation. Joan was incensed that the capital of her beloved country was held by the hated Burgundians, who were allies of the English. Yes, Duke Philip of Burgundy and his confederates controlled Paris.

‘You filthy, hyper- active English-loving Burgundian dogs!

Very soon you will be as lifeless as cut down wooden logs!’

Joan resolved to take the city from these odious traitors.

Philip, Duke of Burgundy.

In August, 1429, Joan made her way to Paris, capturing a number of towns on the way. She had said that she would take Paris, but the city was defended by huge impenetrable walls that towered high into the sky. Joan boldly strode towards the battlements, her standard held aloft as she did so. The Maid fearlessly called out to the Parisians to immediately surrender their city to Charles VII.

‘Oh, people of Paris, break free from the lethal Burgundian infection!

Give Duke Philip a taste of a rightful, patriotic Parisian insurrection!’

Joan directs her troops at the siege of Paris.

However, her cries were met with a volley of arrows, one of which pierced her thigh. In great pain, but undeterred, Joan continued to shout encouragement to her troops as she was carried to a tent for treatment. Joan certainly had the heart to continue the fight, but not so King Charles VII. Much to Joan’s disgust, he ordered his forces to retreat from Paris on September 9th. A furious Joan could do no other than fume and utter her displeasure under her breath.

‘Oh, what shame to leave our beloved city of Paris in the hands of the Burgundians, the false French!

Every single one of these English-loving wretched Burgundian dogs gives off a foul, traitorous stench!

In October, Charles allowed Joan to take part in the successful siege of Saint-Pierre-le-Moutier. Joan wintered with the king in the Loire region in a state of relative relaxation. However, the early months of 1430 saw the Duke of Burgundy on the prowl once more. His forces had besieged the town of Compiegne.

‘The ignoble Duke of Burgundy was again on the prowl!

The loyal people of Compiegne felt threatened by the sound of his odious growl!’

The spring saw Joan advancing to the aid of the people of Compiegne. Her plan was to repeat her success at Orleans. On May 23rd she engaged the Burgundians, but luck was not with her. In the heat of battle she was thrown from her horse and captured by the Burgundians.

Joan is captured by the Burgundians at Compiegne.

‘Of all their battlefield captures!

This one sent the Burgundians into ecstatic raptures!’

When he heard of Joan’s capture, Duke Philip sped at haste to view his coveted prize. What was now to become of the Maid of Orleans?

 

 

‘ But how to save France from English aggression!

Oh, how to ensure the Dauphin’s right to regal succession!’

In January 1429, Jeanne travelled to the town of Vaucouleurs and asked the garrison commander to allow her to visit the Dauphin at Chinon. The commander was astounded at her audacity to say the least, and sent her away. However, she told the commander that the French had suffered a defeat close to Orleans before the news had been reported. He mocked her boldness in disbelief. He later learned that this was in fact the case. How could she possibly have known this?

The battle of Rouvray.

Jeanne claimed that her prediction came through a divine communication whilst she was tending her animals, so the commander duly arranged for Jeanne to travel to Chinon to see the Dauphin.

‘What would the Dauphin make of the maid who promised him victory over the English in battle!

For so many years with their actions did the English cause French nerves to rattle!

Would he listen to her, or dismiss her rhetoric as mere, demented tittle tattle?

The Dauphin, Charles.

Goodness knows, this was an age of visionaries, many of whom were proved to be charlatans or lunatics. Would the girl from Domremy be any different? In this case yes! Jeanne made a great first impression upon the Dauphin, by identifying him when he was in disguise amongst his courtiers.

‘The Dauphin hoped to give Jeanne a little surprise!

On their first encounter, he appeared in front of her in disguise!’

The Dauphin was in low spirits and was convinced that the fall of Orleans was simply a matter of time. Perhaps it was just sheer desperation which prompted him to give Jeanne an audience. Jeanne told the Dauphin that she would be able to defeat the English and lift the siege of Orleans. She also confidently predicted that he would soon be crowned in Reims Cathedral, the traditional coronation location of French kings.

‘My mission is to defeat the English and preserve the French nation!

As such, I will ensure that you are able to travel to Reims for your solemn coronation!’

The Dauphin and his advisers insisted that Jeanne be questioned by theologians, and eventually the Dauphin took the view that she was probably genuine. In April, 1429 Jeanne was en-route to Orleans at the head of an army, carrying her banner upon which was an image of Christ. In early May, she engaged the English and they quickly took flight on May 8th. The long siege of Orleans was over. It was an important victory and boosted French morale when it had been at its lowest.

Jeanne rode around the city to the rapturous applause of its citizens. These people had suffered terrible hardships during the six month siege. Many had given up hope, and now having been delivered from their foe, they were delirious with relief. They would eat, drink and be merry again.

The aftermath of the siege of Orleans.

The French victory was totally unexpected and Jeanne’s fame as a leader spread like wildfire through the ranks of both the English and French military. The French achieved a series of victories in swift succession which included the battle of Patay on June 18th. Patay has been described as an Agincourt in reverse and a great French victory. The result can be attributed to Jeanne’s decision to pursue the retreating English army when the other commanders could not make up their minds what to do.

The Battle of Patay.

The delighted French soldiers were heard to cry:

‘Patay! Patay! Patay! For France such a glorious day!

This was was the price that the English for their crimes, were forced to pay!

This is our revenge over the English for Agincourt!

This will not be the last victory, there will be more!’

By July Reims itself was in French hands. True to her word, the Dauphin was crowned King Charles VII of France in Reims Cathedral in July 1429. As you can see, Jeanne was present, looking on approvingly. To her mind, God’s will had been done.

Jeanne at the coronation of Charles VII at Reims Cathedral.

‘The coronation of the Dauphin at Reims was to the English monarchy, a dreadful, humiliating blow!

To the English, the top priority was: Get the maid! And to that end, it was all systems go!’

 

Jeanne d’Arc

The Duke of Bedford’s lament! Oh how the poor man did lament!

The defeat at Orleans cast terrible thoughts into his mind and boy, did they ferment!

The Duke of Bedford was beside himself with shame and sorrow when the French army, commanded by a teenage French girl, freed the city of Orleans.

The siege of Orleans.

In fact, he must have been inconsolable. The embarrassment! In a fit of intense mortification, the Duke would have exclaimed:

‘Look, I say to you, my dear chaps!

This is the most nasty, indeed the cruellest of mishaps!

It is a fair thing to be beaten by a man who has fought on many a battlefield!

But the shame! Oh yes, the shame, of facing an army led by a girl and being forced to yield!

And just when we all thought that the fate of the Dauphin and his allies was sealed!’

In a mere eight days, French forces led by Joan had driven the English out of all of the bases they had held on the river Loire.

But,…. who was this ‘mere slip of a girl’?

 ‘Yes! Who she?

How did this come to be?

Because Jeanne would be born amongst ye!’

Jeanne was born on January 6th 1412, the feast of the Epiphany in Domremy, a village in the duchy of Lorraine. As is well known, it was the anniversary of the night that the ‘Three Kings’ came bearing gifts for the newly born Jesus. Some would say the anniversary in 1412 brought forth a great gift for the French people.

The Three Kings adore the infant Jesus.

‘It was the feast day of the visit to Jesus in Bethlehem by the Three Kings!

The anniversary in 1412 saw the birth of a girl child, who for France, would do great things!’

Jeanne’s father and mother were Jacques d’Arc and Isabelle, nee Romee, who were both highly respected in the locality. Jacques was a peasant farmer and Isabelle was most devout in her religious beliefs. Their daughter, Jeanne was conscientious in her duties around the farm and became a talented seamstress. Like her mother, young Jeanne was  particularly pious, and appears to have been regarded as something of a prig by the other young people of Domremy.

Reasons why!

It has been suggested that Jeanne’s primary motivation for her crusade against the English was borne of religious fervour. Although this may have been a contributory factor, it must be remembered that France had been ravaged by English invasions for decades. In July 1428, the villagers of Domremy had to flee from the advancing Burgundians who were the allies of the English. Jeanne and her family driving their livestock before them, found refuge in the neighbouring town of Neufchateau. When they returned, they found that Domremy was a smouldering ruin. It was a terrible blow, and one that someone with such a deep sense of justice as Jeanne, would have taken very much to heart.

 It is fair to surmise that if the English had not invaded France, Jeanne would have lived the life of a peasant farmer’s wife in Domremy.

The ‘voices’.

Jeanne has stated that she began to hear a mysterious voice when she was twelve. She was in her father’s garden when a luminous cloud appeared, and from it came a voice. The voice told her that she had been chosen by God to restore France to the authority of King Charles VII. The voices continued and Jeanne concluded that they came from Saint Michael the Archangel.

Saint Michael the Archangel.

                                                                                                          ‘The voice of Saint Michael! His voice! His voice!

I must obey! I have absolutely no choice!’

So, with that, Jeanne’s path in life was set forth.

Henry VI

1421-1471

‘His journey was not that of the average pilgrim!

The odyssey was awkward, hard and grim!’

Henry was born on December 6th 1421 at Windsor. He was never to know his father, Henry V, who was the very epitome of the warrior king. King Henry V died on campaign in France on August 31st of the following year. Although only an infant, Henry’s claim to the throne of England was not disputed, and his three uncles would act as regents until he came of age. Two months later on October 21st 1422, Henry became king of France when his grandfather, Charles VI died.

Charles VI, King of France.

‘As a babe in arms, Henry inherited not just one royal crown but two!

Most agreed that such a favourable blessing was nothing less than his rightful due!’

 Henry was the only king to be simultaneously monarch of both England and France.

                                                                                                           Henry VI crowned king of England in 1429.                                                                                                                                                                                                            

 

                                                       Henry VI crowned King of France at Notre Dame in December 1431.                                                      

Few kings of England have had such an auspicious beginning to their reign. However, Henry grew to be a well-intentioned, simple minded man who was easily manipulated by those around him. He was totally unsuited for regal leadership and would have been happier ensconced in the cloister as a monk.

‘Henry was not a man of  martial valour, who habitually performed many a daring deed!

He was more inclined to a holy life of peaceful prayer, and a book of psalms to read!’

He could not have been more unlike his father, Henry V. Henry VI’s time as king would not be happy and events distressed him to the extent that he became insane. Henry’s long reign ended tragically when he was murdered in 1471.

The situation in France in the late 1420s.

The situation in France was one of political and military stalemate. Little had changed since the death of Henry V in 1422. Without the late king’s inspiring leadership and steel like resolution, the great victories were somewhat less frequent. Nevertheless, the English under Henry VI’s uncle, the Duke of Bedford, had consolidated the gains made by Henry V. English forces were firmly in control of the area to the north of the Loire, whereas as the dauphin held sway to the south of the river.

The English encounter an unexpected French commander at Orleans .

In 1429, the Duke of Bedford besieged the town of Orleans. The Dauphin was greatly concerned, because if Orleans was to fall then his territories would be at risk from conquest by the English. Bedford was confident of victory at Orleans and felt that the final defeat of the Dauphin was simply a matter of time.

The siege of Orleans 1429.

In the event, Bedford’s siege was lifted by a French force led by a girl of 17. The young female commander would become known as Joan of Arc. This young woman would lead the French to further victories which enabled the Dauphin to travel to Rheims to be crowned king of France as Charles VII.

‘The Duke of Bedford fancied that the flag of England over Orleans, he would soon unfurl!

He did not count on the determination and skill of a young slip of a French girl!’

The English had suffered a very sudden, serious reversal of fortune from a most unexpected quarter. Who was this teenage girl that foiled the military aims of the seasoned battle commander, the Duke of Bedford?

.

‘How sweet it is! Oh how sweet it is!

With Paris as his next target, Henry would ask:

‘Who could possibly deny me the throne of France? The old French king has lost his marbles and is now a gibbering idiot whilst his son, the wretched Dauphin is in deep disgrace. Everyone blames him for the death of the Duke of Burgundy and it is hard not to see his hand in it. As for the new Duke of Burgundy, dear Philip? Well a lovely chap, but Philip lacks the experience to rule France as a king.

Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy.

The obvious candidate for the throne of France is me!’

Henry had the support of John the Good, but he needed the approval of the French Queen Isabeau, mother of the Dauphin. But why would the Queen support Henry thereby disinheriting her son? The Dauphin, Charles, had treated Isabeau shabbily and as a result she harboured an intense hatred for him. As the French king was insane, he took no part in the matter. Queen Isabeau decided to accept Henry as the heir to her husband, Charles VI.

‘Henry in his quest for the French throne received the support of Queen Isabeau!

she was her own son, the Dauphin’s most implacable foe!’

The best days of his life.

It was agreed by the Treaty of Troyes, May 1420 that Henry was the heir to the French throne and that he would marry King Charles’ daughter, the nineteen year old Princess Catherine. In the meantime, Henry would act as regent for the incapable King Charles VI. The French nobles were required to swear an oath to accept the treaty.

Princess Catherine.

This was the zenith of his career. Henry was now the undisputed heir to the throne of France. He was quite literally on top of the world. Henry and Catherine were married on June 2nd 1420. A son, Henry was born eighteen months later. In February 142o, the royal couple travelled to England and Catherine was crowned Queen of England at Westminster Abbey by Archbishop Chichele.

Archbishop Chichele.

 

Henry might have exclaimed:

‘Oh, how could one man be blessed with so much!

Clearly, I have been endowed with the golden touch!’

Henry and his queen then went on a grand tour of England, visiting the most important towns. The king took great pleasure in showing off his new bride to the English people. It was a heady time and Henry had never been happier.

The best days of his life! However, nothing lasts forever.

Whilst he was in England, Henry had left his brother Thomas, Duke of Clarence in charge of affairs in France. However, Thomas was killed whilst engaging the Dauphin’s forces on March 22nd 1421. Upon hearing this most unwelcome news, Henry decided to return to France. Henry was well aware that his enemies would have been greatly heartened by defeating and killing Thomas, and he was determined to puncture their inflated morale.

The death of a king.

Henry was laying siege to the town of Meaux which lay east of Paris. The siege was a long one, beginning on October 6th and lasted until March. Henry fell ill with dysentery which was afflicting a good many of his men. Undoubtedly his discomfort was greatly intensified by the enemy’s habit of forcing a donkey to bray from the battlements and gleefully shouting that it was Henry giving a speech. The garrison were severely punished for both their stubbornness and also, for their gross impertinence.

Although he had attained a victory at Meaux, Henry’s condition worsened. By August, he was so weak that he had to be transported by litter, but appeared to be lucid in his thinking. As the end drew near, he announced that he intended to go on crusade to reconquer Jerusalem for Christianity.

On August 31st Henry died at Vincenness at the age of thirty five.

On July 31st, 1418, Henry arrived at Rouen, the capital of Normandy and besieged the city. It was to be a long and bitter siege, causing immense hardship to its citizens.

The siege of Rouen, 1418 – 1419.

The siege was to last six months and when the food supply began to run low in October, the citizens appealed to the king for help. They also requested aid from Duke John ‘The Fearless’  of Burgundy.

John, Duke of Burgundy.

However, their pleas fell on deaf ears and no help would ever come to the besieged of Rouen. Food shortages became chronic and soon starvation stalked the streets of Rouen:

‘They ate dogs, they ate cats,

They ate mice, horses and rats,

For thirty pence, went a rat.’

The poor people of Rouen. Henry V at his most ruthless.

‘Rouen cast out its weakest of the weak!

If they want help, then the English king they must seek!’

In December, the city expelled a large number of people, women with children and the elderly, but Henry would not let them pass. They were consigned to a ditch at the base of the city walls. There, stuck between two armies, they dwelt in inconceivable  misery. When some of the English soldiers took pity on the people and gave them food, they were ordered to stop. However, Henry did grant one concession to these abandoned folk. On Christmas Day, he allowed food to be sent to the people in the ditch, but it was for one day only. Cold and hunger would soon take the lives of these, the most unfortunate of the unfortunate.

On January 19th 1419 , Rouen surrendered to Henry V.

Onwards to Paris.

The whole of Normandy was soon under his control and now Henry made his way to Paris. By August, English forces were camped outside the city gates. Meanwhile, the Duke of Burgundy and the Dauphin (the heir to the French throne) had agreed to meet to discuss how best to defeat Henry V.

A most convenient murder.

Then a very strange thing happened which worked to Henry’s advantage. On September 10th, Duke John of Burgundy met with the Dauphin at Montereau to discuss tactics in their endeavour to rid France of the English presence. However, the unfortunate Duke was hacked to death on the bridge at Montereau in circumstances which remain obscure. He appears to have met the Dauphin on bended knee when he was attacked.

‘Duke John knelt in homage to the Dauphin, but he never arose! 

As he knelt, he was struck by multiple deadly sword blows!’

The murder of John, Duke of Burgundy in September 1419.

Although the Dauphin was said to have been visibly disturbed by the murder, it is difficult to believe that he was not involved. The murder caused outrage across France. Many in France viewed Henry in a more favourable light than the Dauphin. The new Duke of Burgundy John the Good, determined to avenge his father, immediately allied himself with Henry. Henry was now approaching the pinnacle of his success.

 

 

After Agincourt, Henry sallied forth to Calais without fear of apprehension, and from there sailed to England.

 The conquering Hero, King Hal!

Henry V.

The king’s entry into London that November was a rapturous affair. The citizenry turned out in their thousands to welcome the conquering hero. As Henry rode through the streets, the Londoners shouted:

‘Hail to King Henry V of England ! To you, sovereign lord and your army! We all do hail!

The French thought that against you, they would surely win, only to miserably fail!’

Henry basked in the adulation of the populace. The victory at Agincourt conferred on him the ultimate legitimacy that he had always craved. His father’s right to rule had often been viewed in some quarters as illegitimate. Henry IV had deposed and murdered Richard II, and therefore many had refused to acknowledge him as the rightful king. The dark shadow of his father’s actions had served to cast a pall over Henry’s reign.

‘But after Agincourt, any hint of darkness hanging over Henry’s right

to reign over England grew into bright light!

Due to the great victory, England’s morale was now raised to an unprecedented height!’

The French, hellbent on revenge, blockaded Harfleur in the summer of 1416.

‘Their defeat at Agincourt had left the French feeling humiliated and dour!

They responded by attempting to recapture their port at Harfleur!’

King Henry sent his brother John, Duke of Bedford, to relieve Harfleur and in this endeavour he was successful.

John Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Bedford.

(Note the striking resemblance to his older brother, Henry)

Question: Which of the two brothers has the most handsome profile?

Henry and sea power.

Henry had a sound understanding of the importance of military mastery of the sea. The king initiated a policy of naval expansion. In this respect, he was a true disciple of King Alfred the Great of England, who had built a navy to combat his enemy the Vikings, in the ninth century.

A later depiction of Alfred the Great.

The navy was comprised of many different types of vessels including great warships weighing some thirty tons, and barges for transporting troops. Certainly, many a young fellow of a seafaring inclination found gainful employment in Henry’s new navy.

‘Oh for the salty sea air! The salty sea air! We are all in the navy now boys!

Welcome to life on the ocean wave and its many accompanying trials and joys!

Henry’s second crusade to gain the French throne.

In February 1417, Henry put his navy to good use by launching an invasion of France. He decided to conquer Normandy through a sequence of sieges. His first target was Caen, Normandy’s second largest town. Caen had been besieged and pillaged by Henry’s great-grandfather, Edward III in 1346.

Edward III attacking Caen in 1346.

However, the town had erected new and formidable defences and with plentiful supplies, so the garrison commander was confident about withstanding a siege. King Henry was equally sure that Caen would indeed fall. He might have remarked:

‘In the end, the town of Caen’s great defences will come to nought!

When attacked and battered by the force of my army’s terrible onslaught!’

Henry deployed his artillery skilfully and eventually English forces entered the town on September 4th, 1417. Nevertheless, they were met by fierce resistance from the French soldiers who fought the invaders every inch of the way. The French soldiers are sure to have said:

‘We will fight you in hand to hand combat, through our city of Caen, street by street!

Then, only time can tell which side can crow in victory, and  who will languish in defeat!’

The defenders were slowly beaten back and took refuge in the city’s castle. The French had hoped for a substantial army to come to their aid, but no such prospect was forthcoming. On September 20th, the castle surrendered  on very generous terms from King Henry. In quick succession, many of the towns of Normandy had opened their gates to Henry and acknowledged him as their overlord. Henry’s aim of becoming King of France was beginning to look more and more likely.

 

‘King Henry marched his men from Harfleur towards Calais!

But, it was at tiny Agincourt village where he had his most victorious day!’

The march to Calais.

On October 6th Henry left Harfleur with an army of around 7,000 men to travel to Calais. There he would formulate plans for the recovery of the French lands that he considered to be rightfully his. One problem was that the French would find it quite easy to intercept Henry as he travelled. Another, was that he would have to find a way to transport his army across the great river Somme.

The French had rather un- sportingly destroyed all of the bridges, which created something of an inconvenience. The journey to Calais was meant to take eight days, but it was two weeks before he was able to cross the river. Henry must have been tempted to chant:

‘Good Lord, I want to get across to the other side! Yes, Lord, across to the other side!

Gracious Lord, please be my guide! To the other side, good Lord, be my guide!’

The other side.

Eventually, the English managed to navigate the river by wading across it. The army had packed only eight days of rations, and the soldiers were now desperately hungry and growing weaker by the day. Many of the soldiers were severely weakened by the terrible effects of dysentery. Foul weather added to their misery, constant heavy rain left them cold and sodden.

‘The rain! The rain! Oh, it is our most bitter foe!

It has drenched our bodies and rendered our spirits low!

The battle of Agincourt.

On October 24th, a huge French army of some 36,000 men strong, approached the English army that numbered less than a quarter of its size. However, there was no chance of the English avoiding battle with the French. There was no alternative, but for Henry to prepare his men for battle on the morrow. Henry ordered his men to remain silent and spend the night resting. This was in contrast with the noise of nocturnal merrymaking coming from the French lines.

‘As the French army is many times greater in size!

Surely it is they, who this day will seize the prize!’

The battle itself.

Henry took the view that his best hope lay in conducting a defensive contest in a location that was most inconvenient for an attacking force. On October 25th, the feast of St Crispin, he placed his men in a large field which was flanked by woodland on both sides. The king had attended three masses that morning, before mounting his horse and exhorting his men to fight bravely for a just cause. Henry then had his men perform a rather unusual ritual. A surviving English veteran might have recalled:

‘Imploring the aid of Almighty God and St George, the king called for us to prostrate ourselves upon the earth. He then ordered us to place some soil in our mouths to remind ourselves that we were mortal, and that our bodies would one day be but dust!’

The English defensive position was reminiscent of the Anglo-Saxon shield wall of old. The French were commanded by Charles d’Albret, Constable of France. The French were reportedly in high spirits, after all, the English were few in number and were weakened with hunger and dysentery. Some of the French soldiers were enjoying a leisurely breakfast, whilst others made a point of reconciling with those whom they had once quarrelled.

Charles d’Albret, Constable of France.

The two armies met in the morning, but did not engage each other until close to midday. At this point, Henry ordered his archers forward to within range of the French lines. They hammered sharpened stakes into the ground to protect themselves against the coming cavalry charge. The English archers then released a volley of arrows into the French ranks. The French cavalry then charged, but their horses…….

The two armies meet: the French on the left and the English to the right.

…….began to flounder in the wet soil. This slowed their advance, making them easy targets for the English bowmen. The deadly aim of the archers caused a great slaughter amongst the French.

‘The rain! The rain! Once our bitter foe has now proven to be this day, our saviour!

It has turned the field into a marsh, bogging down the French cavalry and turning the tide of battle in our favour!’

 The French men-at-arms were at a disadvantage when they engaged the English, because if knocked over, the weight of their armour made it difficult for them to rise. Many of them would be crushed, drowned or suffocated on the water-logged earth as the battle continued. In fact, more French soldiers died in this way than were killed directly by the English.

King Henry fought in the thick of the battle. He made no attempt to hide his identity from the French. On the contrary, he wore a crown atop his helmet. At one point his helmet was struck by a blow. When his younger brother, Prince Humphrey was felled, the king fought over him, almost certainly saving his life.

Henry V protects his wounded brother, Humphrey from French soldiers.

After the initial stage of the battle, the bowmen joined in the hand to hand fighting. Picking up discarded weapons, they fell upon the French with the fury of a pack of wolves. The rest of the French army, having lost heart, turned tail and fled the field.

The slaughter of the French prisoners.

In medieval times, there was a thriving business in the ransoming of rich prisoners of war. So a wealthy knight, if captured, could expect to be well treated and released after a ransom was paid. This was a much sought after perk of warfare in France and many a fortune was made through such transactions. However, there was very little ransoming done at Agincourt. This was because Henry, suspecting attack from the rear, ordered the French prisoners to be killed lest they aid their compatriots. In fact this was a needless act, as the English easily fought off any French assault.

Henry had achieved an important victory. It is difficult to determine exactly the number of casualties at Agincourt, but the French came off far worse. The French losses were perhaps in the region of 12,000, whereas the English dead were numbered in the hundreds.