‘Although stricken with illness, Edward rode astride a horse, declining to be borne upon a litter!

With Robert Bruce and the Scots he was both extremely angry and very, very bitter!’

Oh! Oh! How the old king must have thundered against the Scottish upstart! Bruce’s unworthy ambitions had caused untold disruption, and a tranquil old age for Edward with his much younger wife at Westminster was now in jeopardy. Another fly in the ointment was the heir to the throne, his feckless son, Edward, young Ned. The only thing that King Edward and Robert Bruce could agree upon, was that the Prince of Wales was a most unimpressive figure with little in the way of political cunning or military ability. There had been times when the king had despaired of his son and heir.

Edward I and Prince Edward, the Prince of Wales.

Nevertheless, King Edward in his twilight days had hoped to be enjoying those ‘special years’ as ruler of the whole of Great Britain. It was his great desire to put all of the military unpleasantness behind him.

‘Oh! to be able to bask in old age at the palace at Westminster as Britain’s emperor in all my kingly glory!

Now the actions of that foul Jock, Bobby Bruce, has meant that events may well unfold as a very different story!’

Indeed, events did exactly that. Edward was never to see Scotland or Westminster ever again. King Edward died on July 7th at Burgh-by-Sands in Cumberland. The old warrior must have realized that the end was nigh, so how would he have viewed the results of his exertions during his long reign as king?

Wales had been brought under the jurisdiction of the English crown, but Scotland had managed to avoid that particular fate. This unpalatable fact clearly caused the king immense frustration.

Edward is remembered as a great lawmaker, and he has been referred to as the ‘Father of parliament’. The king summoned more parliaments than any of his predecessors and certainly made it into a more representative institution. The ‘Model parliament’ of 1295 brought together the nobles, the clergy, the shires and the towns in a manner far more inclusive than hitherto.

A later image of King Edward presiding over parliament.

Edward did not intend to concede power to the people but nonetheless, this constituted an important step in the development of the modern parliament.

Edward’s treatment of the Jewish people has quite rightly left a foul taste in modern mouths, but in this respect he was a creature of his times. Anti-Semitism was rife, not only in England, but across Christendom generally.

It is the duty of every king to beget an heir to carry the burden of kingship after his own death. Edward was only too well aware of the low calibre of the son he had begotten, and this would undoubtedly have been the source of more than a little unease to him as he lay on his deathbed.

‘Oh Robert Bruce, you clearly feel incredibly confident and spruce!

But the smart money says that you have definitely cooked your goose!’

Robert Bruce with his wife from a 16th century source.

At first, this opinion indeed appeared to be the case. Bruce was defeated in battle at Methven by Aymer de Valence in June 1306.

Aymer de Valence, Earl of Pembroke.

The newly crowned king of Scotland suffered another military setback at Dalry in Perthshire. In the autumn King Edward, resolute as always, and confident of victory decided to take the bull by the horns. He was, however, debilitated by sickness as he made his way slowly towards Scotland. For Robert Bruce, the prospects for the longevity of his reign did not bode well. Ironically, Bruce was defeated in battle by Prince Edward whom he had initially dismissed as having little potential for leadership.

Old King Edward was incandescent with rage at Bruce, and venom spat from his aged lips as he sallied north. Edward was determined to exact the utmost revenge on Robert Bruce for his actions and indeed the Bruce family were to pay a high price for his ambitions.

‘To destroy Bruce and his followers was Edward’s solemn vow!

To ensure that thereafter, all of Scotland to the English crown, would forever bow!’

Prince Edward besieged Kildrummy castle  which was being held by Bruce’s younger brother, Niall in the summer of 1306.  The young prince took the castle along with many prisoners who would suffer a horrible fate. Bruce’s wife, Elizabeth, along with other female relatives initially escaped young Edward’s clutches. They were later captured and endured a long period of captivity in appalling conditions. Bruce’s sister, Mary and another female ally were imprisoned in wooden cages suspended from a castle in full public view.

‘Such was the extent of Edward’s furious rage!

That he had two of the women held in an open wooden cage!

Quartered way up on high!

amidst the elements offered by the wide open sky!

The two women were adequately fed, but nevertheless it must have been a traumatic and highly humiliating experience for them to endure. Young Prince Edward, however, probably on account of their gender, gallantly accorded them access to a toilet.

The male clan members were somewhat less fortunate. Niall was sentenced to being hanged, drawn and quartered and suffered the terrible penalty in its entirety at Berwick on Tweed in September 1306. Two other brothers of Bruce also died in the rebellion against King Edward. Debilitated as he was, this news must have been a great consolation to Edward in his dreadful, final discomfort. How he must have rejoiced upon learning of what had happened to the Bruce clan, and this would have surely eased his pain. Tears of agony would have been replaced by those of exuberant joy as he was told of the fate of Bruce’s wife and his siblings. The king’s faithful retainers could only have hoped that these events would enable a recovery in the elderly monarch. After all, as they knew, laughter is the greatest of all medicines. Goodness knows, King Edward must have laughed with every fibre of his enormous, powerful frame.

Bruce was on the run and Edward felt confident of final victory in Scotland. However, he had not yet managed to snare Bruce, who evaded capture and remained at large. Indeed the wily Scot defeated Aymer de Valence in battle at Loudon Hill in May of 1307.

Robert Bruce with his followers.

Nevertheless, Bruce’s bid for independence from the English crown appeared to have faltered in the face of the English military onslaught. The old king did not see these victories at first hand because his illness allowed him to travel only a couple of miles a day.

‘King Edward, old as he was, did not intend to retire!

He was of a mind to savage Scotland with sword and fire!’

King Edward was now sixty eight years old, an incredible age for the medieval period. However, retirement did not appear to be high on his list of priorities, if it figured at all. Bruce calculated that the formidable old king would soon be dead and the principal obstacle to his continuing status King of Scotland would thus be removed. It was an enormous gamble but would it pay off?

‘Having been captured, ‘Big Bill Wallace’, in chains is conveyed to London town!

His appearence is met at every turn by Englishman with a loud snarl, and an angry frown!’

August, 1305 was one of the most satisfying times of King Edward’s long reign. How he must have rubbed his hands as he gleefully pondered Wallace’s fate when the unfortunate Scot reached London. There would be a humiliating show trial in Westminster Hall and then the inevitable, slow butchery which would dispatch the wayward Scot rebel in the most drawn out, painful manner imaginable. There was however, one awful disappointment, the king could not witness the bloody spectacle in person.

‘Oh, how I wish I could be there at Smithfield and hear his cries of agony as his insides are slowly plucked from his body. To watch as he is forced to see his bowels being burnt before his eyes!

‘To be present would give me the greatest joy!

That I have ever experienced since I was but a small boy!’

But I, a king cannot be seen at such an event, standing amongst the baying multitude of rude fellows and their lowly women! It would be beneath my royal dignity!’

The trial of William Wallace for treason took place at Westminster Hall on August 23rd 1305. Wallace maintained that the charge was absurd, because he had never been a subject of Edward I.

Wallace’s trial.

Upon being found guilty, Wallace was stripped of his garments and then dragged on a horse drawn sledge to the execution site at Smithfield. There he suffered the full severity of the terrible penalty so recently introduced by King Edward for the crime of treason.

‘To be dragged to your death at the hooves of a horse!

Whilst the spectators, with pleasure screamed themselves hoarse!’

Although Edward was not present, his nobles certainly were, and they would have conveyed the experience of the gruesome proceedings to the king in graphic detail.  The head was placed on a pike on London bridge, and his limbs were displayed in Newcastle and various Scottish towns.

Edward wished to make his point concerning the sentence for rebellion in the most visual way possible. Perhaps he thought that this would deter any other Scot from adopting Wallace’s mantle in opposing the English crown. But, in this respect, ‘Longshanks’ conclusion would prove to be quite mistaken.

Robert the Bruce

Edward’s dream of a pacified Scotland was shattered within months of Wallace’s execution by the Scots nobleman, Robert Bruce. In 1302 Bruce had sworn fealty to Edward, but then reversed his position in February 1306. Bruce decided that he wanted to become king of an independent Scotland and vowed to throw off the English yoke.

Robert Bruce.

Bruce’s first act was to murder his main rival for the Scottish throne, John Comyn in front of the altar in a church at Dumfries.

‘Oh dear John, you died at the foot of the Franciscan’s church’s high altar!

In order that the Bruce’s ambitions to be king  of Scotland would not falter!’

He was going to terminate the careers of any potential domestic adversaries before he took on the formidable King of England. Bruce then proceeded to Scone where he arranged to have himself crowned King of the Scots with great, some would say indecent, haste. Robert Bruce’s decision to declare independence for Scotland appears at first rather puzzling given Edward I’s reputation as a  great military commander. How could any sane Scottish patriot forget the example that King Edward had made of Big Bill Wallace only the summer before?  It was also the case that many of the most strategically positioned castles in Scotland were in English hands. What did Bruce hope to achieve by this rebellious endeavour?

Perhaps the explanation lies in the fact that by 1306, Edward was in his sixty-seventh year, and Bruce calculated that the old king could not live much longer and would soon be replaced on the English throne by his son, Edward.

‘Was young Prince Edward a chip off of the old block?

No! You could be forgiven for thinking that he was born of entirely different stock!’

It is probable that Robert Bruce had encountered the Prince of Wales, young Ned at the siege of Sterling castle. This liaison would have occurred when Bruce was aligned with King Edward in his endeavour to subjugate Scotland. He would, in common with a good many others, have been singularly unimpressed with the young man who was heir to the throne of England, so long held by his illustrious father. An indolent fellow, much given to flippancy and spending his hours in company of the very lowest sort. Prince Edward, young Ned, was precisely the type of adversary that a man like Bruce could only dream of. Sometimes dreams can come true.

This could have been the decisive factor which ultimately determined Bruce’s strategy regarding his bid to become King of Scotland. Unlike Balliol, he intended to be king in his own right unbeholden to any other sovereign. It was a long game, and a huge risk, but one Bruce clearly thought was worth taking.

 

 

 

 

‘I was just about to attack King Phil!

But my triumvirate was defeated by a Scot called Big Bill!

Now I will see the upstart Scot crushed by means of my iron will!’

What thoughts were going through King Edward’s head as he boarded the royal yacht back to England? The king was beside himself with fury at the news from Sterling Bridge.

‘How did those idiots de Cressingham and Surrey allow themselves to be defeated by a Scots savage going by the name of Big Bill Wallace? Now I have to leave France and hurry back to deal with a problem which should never have arisen .’

William ‘Big Bill’ Wallace.

His sombre mood was in marked contrast to that of the crew who had learned of his impending marriage to a woman forty years his junior. How they must have smiled wryly amongst themselves, the jokes about the nuptials became increasingly coarse. Their toothless mouths grinning broadly as they spoke of the elderly Edward and young Margaret getting together. The sailors nudging each other and nodding knowingly, the incredible energy of the lusty old goat, they must have thought.

‘The old king is getting ready to treat himself to a taste!

Of the King of France’s sister so young and chaste!

The king will carry her off to the royal boudoir with the utmost haste!

Wallace in the ascendency.

After his remarkable and unexpected victory at Sterling Bridge, ‘Big Bill’ assumed the title ‘Guardian of Scotland’. He was also knighted and became Sir William, this would have added insult to injury as far as Edward was concerned.

To the Sottish clans, Wallace was a saviour and they flocked to his standard. At the close of 1297, it appeared to the Scots that Wallace was the man who could guarantee the independence of Scotland. However, the euphoria would be very short-lived.

 

The Battle of Falkirk

Edward amassed his forces and marched into Scotland in July 1298. It was not an easy journey, and inclement weather had made it difficult to keep his large army supplied. The problem became so acute that Edward was on the point of calling the campaign off and returning to Edinburgh. The king changed his mind when he learned that Wallace and his army were located a mere thirteen miles away in an area of woodland known as Callendar. Edward knew that if he were to beat a retreat that Wallace would harry his army with guerrilla tactics on the way south. So, better to lance the boil without delay and go after Wallace now.

On July 22nd Edward’s army engaged Wallace’s at Falkirk. The Scots were at a disadvantage because the crown forces greatly outnumbered them, and the English army had a large contingent of cavalry and archers wielding the lethal longbow. Indeed, the Scots were probably outnumbered by as much as a ratio of 2-1. Furthermore, Edward’s army were greatly more experienced in warfare, having served under the king in France.

Wallace had a much smaller army and had conducted a guerilla campaign against the English. Why did he now decide to meet Edward in a pitched battle? This may well have been Big Bill’s thinking:

‘ True, yon Sassanachs are superior in numbers, but only last year at Sterling Bridge we Scots defeated a much larger army. With a wee bit of Gaelic ingenuity, we can do the same with Edward’s army. The Sassanachs are not going to go away of their own accord, they will have to be forced out! Better sooner than later!’

So battle commenced, as Wallace organised his pike men into hedgehog shaped formations known as schiltrons, which initially stood firm against the English assaults. Wallace ordered his light cavalry to attack the English mounted knights with disastrous results for the Scots.

The schiltrons were subjected to persistent attack from the English archers and the deadly rain of arrows wrought carnage amongst their ranks.

‘The English arrows constituted a veritable deadly rain!

Causing the Scots pike men havoc, and intense physical pain!’

The English and Welsh bowmen

With the Scots pike men in disarray from the avalanche of arrows, the English mounted knights, under the command of the Bishop of Durham Anthony Bek, moved in and soon crushed any futher resistance.

The English cavalry charge the Scottish schiltrons. 

The battle of Falkirk was a huge Scottish defeatbt Wallace himself managed to escape into the surrounding woodland.

From Guardian of Scotland to fugitive amongst the flowers of Scotland.

King Edward’s resounding victory at Falkirk left Wallace’s reputation as a military leader in tatters and he resigned his so very recently assumed title of Guardian of Scotland. Robert Bruce now succeeded him in that role. Little is known about Wallace’s activities after Falkirk but there is some evidence that he travelled to France to seek aid from the French king. However it came to nothing and Wallace’s role as a Scottish nationalist leader was over. In 1304 the Scottish nobility swore fealty to Edward and Wallace was now a fugitive in the land of which he had once been guardian. King Edward, resolute and thorough as ever pursued Wallace relentlessly, determined to bring him to what he considered to be justice.

William Wallace on the run.

‘Like a common felon, brave Wallace was hunted and put to the chase!

King Edward was resolved to place him in an English court where he would, in vain, plead his nationalist case!’

Wallace was captured in August of 1305 by a Scottish knight, John de Menteith who had defected to the English. One of Wallace’s servants had informed de Menteith of Wallace’s location and the former Scots leader was apprehended as he slept in bed.

When he heard the news, King Edward smiled grimly. He felt that Wallace had caused him enormous trouble and for that he must be put through the most humiliating and agonising ordeal that could possibly imagined.

‘But the Scots will not lie still!

With Edward away, Scot leaders go in for the kill!’

Happy with the situation in Scotland, Edward turned his attention to the dispute between himself and the King of France. In fact he was feeling extremely chuffed at what he thought was a repeat performance of his achievement in Wales. For Edward, the channel crossing must have been an almost joyous one, whatever the weather. The celtic fringes of England would come under the complete control of the crown.

He had left Scotland in the care of a triumvirate of three Englishmen: John de Warrenne, the Earl of Surrey, financial guru Hugh de Cressingham and Walter of Amersham.

The arms of Hugh de Cressingham.

Hugh de Cressingham was in charge of the treasury, and greatly angered the Scots by levying high taxes.

‘While Edward was away in France!

The Scots embarked on a bloody and murderous dance!

This would prove a most difficult boil to lance!

Edward had sailed for France convinced that Scotland had been pacified, but he did not count on two men who would cause him great trouble: Robert Bruce and William Wallace. These two men, aided by Andrew Moray of Bothwell, staged a rebellion against the triumvirate.

The first strike was delivered by the intrepid Wallace in May 1297, when he attacked and  killed the English sheriff of Lanark and his men.

William Wallace

Determined to stop this rebellion in its infancy, Surrey and de Cressingham raised a large army and marched northwards to engage the Scottish upstart. They were confident of victory because their army was much larger than Wallace’s. However, the canny Scot had conceived a plan to turn the tables on the English invaders.

The Battle of Sterling Bridge.

The English army had to cross Sterling bridge, which was extremely narrow and therefore made for very slow progress in crossing to the far bank. When around 2,000 of the English host, mainly cavalry had crossed to the far side, Wallace attacked them. The rest of the English army were effectively prevented from coming to their aid, because the bridge only allowed two horsemen to ride abreast at one time. The English horsemen who had crossed the bridge were slaughtered, including de Cunningham, while the craven Surrey cowered on the other side.

The English might well have eventually defeated Wallace, but the inept Surrey ordered the bridge to be destroyed, precluding the chance of an English attack on Wallace and stranding his own men on the far side with absolutely no hope of rescue.

‘Wallace’s action caused the Earl of Surrey

To get into a terrible flurry!

Filled with fear, the noble Earl departed the scene in an enormous hurry!’

It is said that Wallace had de Cressingham’s corpse skinned, and he had a sword belt made out of his enemy’s flesh. Flushed with excitement at the success of his action, Wallace marched south into England, laying waste to all that he saw. It looked as if Edward’s efforts to subjugate Scotland were to end in a terrible failure.

Meanwhile Edward’s war against Philip IV had not been going well and the news from Scotland must have shocked Longshanks. Edward realised that his main priority had to be to be to pacify the Scots. France would have to be left on the backburner while he dealt with what he regarded as a rebellion against his royal authority. He decided to seek a truce with the French and arranged to marry King Philip’s sister, Margaret. The marriage allowed him to leave France and deal with the Scots.

The marriage was undertaken for military and political considerations and the bride was 40 years younger than the groom. Nevertheless, despite the age difference, the union would prove to be a very happy one. When Margaret was widowed at the age of 26 she sought no suitors, and remained a widow for the rest of her days. She is reported to have said:

‘When Edward died, all men died for me.’

Seal of Margaret of France, Queen of England.

Edward regarded the Scottish action as based on false grounds!

As a result, his fury would know no bounds!

Edward marched north, sending word to King John to meet him at the border town of Berwick-upon-Tweed in order to apologise for his gross impertinence. When John declined to oblige, Edward destroyed the town causing immense slaughter. Such was Edward’s anger, that all were to be put to the sword.

‘King John refused to meet King Edward on the appointed day!

For this insult the local population would have to pay!’

Edward then proceeded into the Scottish Lowlands, efficiently and swiftly eradicating any resistance to his progress. King John, a poor general, was no match for ‘Longshanks’ and by July he had surrendered to Edward.

If anyone thought that Edward would be magnanimous in victory they were in for a rude shock.

A victory so very sweet, I will tour Scotland and the defeated I will meet!

Yes, dear Scots, you I will greet, and all will grovel dejectedly at my feet!

The English king was in a particularly vengeful mood and although he accepted the surrender, he felt it appropriate that King John be ritually humiliated. Edward decided to subject John to a really quite degrading ordeal. When John appeared before Edward at Montrose he ordered that the insignia of the Lion of Scotland be ripped from John’s robes as a symbol of his ignominious submission.

The Lion of Scotland.

This is how King John received the humiliating nickname, ‘Toom Tabard’ (empty coat). The Scottish king, who only minutes earlier he had been wearing the finest of clothing, was left standing in rags in front of the assembled nobility. He was then packed off to be imprisoned in the Tower of London.

But for Edward, this humiliation was not enough!

He was hell-bent on cutting up really rough!

The barons, who had rebelled, were also to be taught a lesson. In August, Edward ordered them to attend a Scottish parliament that he decided to convene.

‘Where? In some great Scottish fortress, or important landmark, regarded as such since days of yore?

No, it was to be held in the now destroyed town of Berwick where the Scottish nobility were to swear fealty to him. As they filed into the empty ruins of this only recently thriving, vibrant town, the barons must have been filled with immense shame. The sight of the bloated bodies lying across the area of the town, would have constituted a depressing sight to these proud Scottish nobles. The stench of the thousands of corpses filling the air would have grieviously assaulted their nostrils. Edward, of course, observed the proceedings with grim satisfaction, resolute in the righteousness of his actions.

King Edward made a victory tour of Scotland with a great display of force. He traversed glens, gleefully parading his power before the defeated Scots, but that was still not enough.

Edward now seized the royal Scottish stone at Scone!

He took it back to Westminster and placed it under the English throne!

The Stone of Scone had been part of the coronation ceremony for Scottish monarchs for centuries, and as such was a vital symbol of Scottish autonomy. Edward had it placed under a new specially designed English throne on which most monarchs would be crowned at Westminster. By doing so Edward was saying that the king of England was the overlord of the people of Scotland.

‘In other words, rubbing their noses in it!

Well, more than just a little bit!’

This, to say the least, caused huge resentment north of the border.

The throne built by Edward with a space for the Stone of Scone underneath.

Edward had left Scotland in the hands of three English nobles, seemingly confident that Scotland had been pacified. This confidence would soon prove to be misplaced.

The fact that Edward was in a position to turn his attention to Scotland came about due to a number of tragedies which befell the Scottish royal family.

The coronation of King Alexander III of Scotland.

 

King Alexander of Scotland had three children, but all had died in quick succession during the early-mid 1280’s. He had taken the precaution of acquiring a second wife in order to produce an heir, but he was killed in a riding accident in 1284 before one could be born.

‘King Alex would bitterly lament the three children that he had lost!

But it was the poor people of Scotland who would eventually bear the heaviest cost!’ 

However, Alexander did have a granddaughter, the eight year old Margaret, the Maid of Norway, daughter of the king of Norway, Eric II.

Margaret, Maid of Norway.

Margaret was now the heir to the throne of Scotland. This is where King Edward I saw a golden opportunity for Scotland to come, in time, under the control of the Plantagenet dynasty. He had already reached an agreement with King Eric whereby his own son and heir, Edward should marry Margaret who was now about to be crowned Queen of Scotland. King Edward was ecstatic, the Plantagents were now on course to rule the entire area of the British Isles. The Gaels of the British Isles, whether Irish, Scottish or Welsh would eventually come under the jurisdiction of the English crown. The House of Plantagenet would become the most powerful monarchy in European history, second to none.

‘Plantagenet rule would extend to cover each and every Gael!

But unfortunately, Edward’s lofty plan was destined to fail!’

However, this wonderful arrangement fell apart when Margaret died in Orkney in September 1290 en route to her coronation. The line of succession to the throne of Scotland was now left very unclear, but there were two main claimants. The two men were the English noble, John Balliol and the Scots baron, Robert Bruce.  A council was established to determine which of the two was the rightful heir to the crown. Edward was to oversee the selection procedure and the council subsequently found in favour of John Balliol.

The decision pleased Edward and Balliol was crowned as King of the Scots on St Andrews Day, 1292.

The Seal of John Balliol.

John Balliol would soon find himself in an extremely awkward situation. King John had to accept the domineering Edward as his feudal overlord. Worse still, Edward’s method of overlordship and treatment of King John would rankle badly with the Scottish nobility.

‘Balliol, now King John, on St Andrew’s Day, settles into a coronation feast at his royal palace!

However, in time he discovers that Scotland’s crown has become a veritable poisoned chalice!’

The roots of the English – Scots war.

Edward treated Scotland as very much a vassal state with King John in the role of a subordinate. John was expected to pay homage to the English king, and more importantly, Edward insisted upon hearing appeals against decisions made by Scottish courts and claimed the authority to overturn the verdicts if he thought it necessary. Matters came to a head in 1294 when Edward demanded that King John provide knights for his war against the French king, Philip IV. The Scottish nobles were incensed at what they regarded as Edward’s contempt for Scotland’s autonomy. They were even more angry when King John agreed to send the soldiers to Edward. Disgusted at King John’s weakness, they formed a governing council to conduct matters of state, and which stripped John of his royal authority. The Scots would eventually come to refer to King John as ‘Toom Tabard’, which means ’empty coat’.

‘Toom Tabard!

Have you no sword in your scabbard!

A sixteenth century image of King John wearing a broken crown and bearing an empty coat of arms.

The council decided to open negotiations with Philip IV, and agreed an alliance which would last three hundred years and become known as the ‘Auld Alliance’. In April 1296 the council forced King John to renounce his fealty to King Edward I.

Edward, furious at what he regarded as blatant  Scottish disloyalty, prepared for an invasion of Scotland.

 

 

 

‘After his backbreaking labours in the valleys of the west!

Edward was intent on enjoying a much needed rest!

The aftermath of his successful endeavours in Wales saw Edward turn his gaze northwards to Scotland, the other Celtic fringe with which England shared a land border. Clearly, frosty Scotland could not have been too far from his mind, but there was more pressing matters to be attended to in sunnier climes. Edward held lands in southwestern France, Aquitaine and Gascony, courtesy of the French crown. Thank God, his dreadful grandfather, King John had been unable to lose those lands along with the rest of his French empire, some eighty years before.

The flag of Aquitaine.

 Edward was certainly most unlike the late, unlamented John and intended to secure control of what remained of the Angevin empire. In 1286, Edward had paid homage to the newly crowned King of France, Philip IV for his lands as Duke of Aquitaine and Gascony. In fact, he spent three years there enjoying the good weather and fine wine. Also, as an Englishman of French descent and fluent in the language, he felt immensely comfortable amidst the beautiful scenery and splendid architecture. Edward could relax, unwind and be himself amongst his people here. After the ghastly time that he had endured in the mists of Wales dealing with those Welsh savages, his sojourn in France was nothing less than a much needed tonic.

‘I spent so long hunting those Welsh wretches through the hills, cold and drenched in rain!

Now here in the balmy ambience of France, my peace of mind, once more I can regain!’

King Philip IV of France.

In some ways the two men were rather alike, both were incredibly fine male specimens. King Philip was known as ‘le bel’ or ‘the fair’, due to his handsome appearance, and Edward was noted for his great height and long, lithe limbs. The resemblance was not merely physical, as both men possessed great force of character and a firm determination to attain their objectives. This became apparent when the two monarchs later quarrelled over Edward’s lands in Aquitaine and Gascony.

King Edward paying homage to King Philip for his French duchies.

But, this unpleasantness with the formidable Philip lay in the future. In 1290, Edward’s visceral anti-Semitism came to the fore and he banished the Jewish people from England’s shores. This was of course to be expected; one has only to look at the Plantagenet family history to discern as much.

He had now been king for eighteen years, and marvelling at his various achievements, he felt supremely at ease with himself. However, that same year, something truly horrible happened which affected Edward deeply, and probably permanently. His Queen Consort, the beloved Eleanor of Castile took ill, and died in the county of Nottinghamshire that November.

Eleanor of Castile.

The moment that Edward had heard that Eleanor was ill, he had rushed to her side. He then sent for their children for one last, melancholy meeting. They had been married for thirty-six blissful years ever since she stood before the altar in Burgos, Spain with Edward as a girl of thirteen. In the interim, the queen had endured some sixteen pregnancies, with just six of her children surviving to adulthood. This included the king’s heir, the future Edward II, who had been born in 1284. Now, at the reasonably advanced age of forty-nine, she had been called to her eternal rest. The king was distraught and accompanied the body on the 12 day journey to Westminster, where she would be interred in the Abbey.

Edward later erected crosses at every place where the funeral cortege halted overnight on its way to Westminster.

‘Farewell my sweet, dearly beloved Queen, Eleanor of Castile!

Your absence at my side is a loss, and sorrow that I will forever feel!’

As he led the cortege south, Edward’s face was skull like, his features contorted with grief, he had never known such sorrow.

There was another death in that autumn of 1290 which would have serious implications for Edward’s reign. Margaret, the Maid of Norway, the heir to Scotland’s throne, had died in Orkney. The seven year old princess had been betrothed to the six year old, Edward, son of Edward I.

Margaret, the Maid of Norway and heir to the Scottish throne.

This left Scotland without an undisputed heir, and there soon appeared a number of competing claimants. Such a development was normally a recipe for trouble and this particular situation was no exception.

‘In each and every part of Wales I will build a mighty castle!

To prevent the emergence of any upstart, traitorous rascal!’

Edward confers with master builder, James of St George, concerning the intricacies of castle construction.

The aftermath of the unpleasantness in Wales.

Perhaps Edward’s wife, Eleanor, might have asked him about the savage manner of Dafydd’s death. As far as the king was concerned Dafydd’s conduct had created a veritable nightmare. God knows poor, dear Roger Mortimer had died on campaign in Wales trying to deal with the Welsh upstart. Roger’s death had affected him deeply, after all, he had always been totally loyal to the crown. Roger had rescued Edward from Monty’s clutches during the Second Barons War.

 God, damn it man!

Edward exclaimed:

‘Sweet Roger had me freed from Monty’s gilded cage!

Is it any wonder that over his death, I felt an enormous rage!’

The loss of Roger had left Edward feeling immensely anguished. He could only take understandable comfort in the intimate details of Dafydd’s execution. The sufferings caused by the long-drawn out process of castration and disembowelling of the man while he was still alive, would have helped sooth his troubled emotions. Edward’s answer to the Queen consort would almost certainly have  been as follows:

‘My greatest need, my most earnest wish, at that point was a catharsis for my anguish!

For the flocks of birds flying around London bridge, Dafydd’s head must have presented a tasty dish!’

Getting down to business.

Justice had been done as far as the king was concerned, but now it was time to look to the future. Thank God, Wales had been subdued, but Edward had to ensure that the principality stayed under royal control. The only method of ensuring continued dominance was the construction of castles at strategic points across the country. Edward’s father, Henry III had begun this process, but Edward extended the programme with characteristic grim resolution.

‘Thanks dad, you began the Welsh castle building fad!

For the example given, I’m most proud and glad!’

A number of new towns were established where the castles were being constructed and Saxon immigrants were encouraged to settle there. Thus creating English urban enclaves positioned in a potentially hostile countryside. Now Edward had a base of loyal support among the population, and this too would help to preclude the possibility of rebellion.

The king embarked upon a major castle building programme and in this endeavour, no expense was spared. In order to ensure the highest standards of architecture, the master mason, James St George was brought over from Savoy to oversee the whole project. Indeed, James did so with a masterful precision that very much stood the test of time. The fruits of his labour can be seen across Wales to this very day.

Caernarfon castle, which lies besides the Menai Strait, is the most complex fortress built by the man from Savoy. One of its features was the presence of round towers. The new tower design allowed the defenders to deploy their fire with greater accuracy, and therefore inflict more damage on the attackers.

Beaumaris castle on Anglesey was the last item of Edward’s fortress construction programme. One of its features was the carefully constructed arrow slits placed at strategic intervals in the defences.

‘The firing slits in the castle are so, so very narrow!

But this means increased accuracy for each and every arrow!’

Another innovation was the provision of attack holes in the roof above the passageways through which the defenders could pour boiling oil on to heads of the emerging enemy.

‘You brave warriors gained entry to Beaumaris through practised armed skill and hard, bloody, backbreaking toil!

But all you got in return was a melted head and torso, courtesy of our own homemade, specially concocted boiling oil!’

Beaumaris castle -featuring the moated north-western defences.

Edward’s measures to deal with what he regarded as unreasonable behaviour by the Welsh were largely successful. Wales remained peaceful for a century or more. The king was content, and he now felt confident in turning his attention to another part of the Celtic fringe, Scotland.

 

‘As time passes, so turns the tide!

For the ap-Gruffydd brothers, there is nowhere now to hide’!

Edward I

Edward’s offensive in Wales had been halted, and a confident Llewelyn had rejected the king’s offers of negotiations. However, the tide now turned in Edward’s favour. Llewelyn had descended from Snowdonia, had travelled to Powys and this, through pure chance, proved to be his undoing. The facts are not entirely clear, but he was travelling with his entourage when he was surprised by a contingent of royal forces at Orewin Bridge in the Brecknockshire hills on December 11th. He was slain by a knight who failed to recognise him. This Welsh prince would be known thereafter as Llewelyn the last. When the body was identified, the corpse was decapitated and sent to London and put on public display. It was the end of an era.

‘So farewell, sweet prince, you noble warrior, Llewelyn the last!

With your slaying at the river Irfon, the age of Welsh freedom is now consigned to the past.

Not quite, if brother Dafydd had anything to do with it. Edward was consumed with a burning hatred for Dafydd. The king really hated him because he blamed the younger brother for the second rebellion and all of the accompanying trouble that it had brought. Hatred? When Edward hated, he did so with a passion and zeal which both mesmerised and terrified all of those who witnessed it.

It was now operation ‘Get Dafydd’ and with this in view Edward led his forces into the mountains of Snowdonia in pursuit of the elusive Welsh prince.

It was now January 1283 and Edward deployed the total military might at his disposal to quash resistance to his will. The Welsh under Dafydd were totally overwhelmed by the sheer numbers, as well as the advanced weaponry of the royal forces. The objective was reached swiftly as the Welsh, demoralised, slipped away back to their homes like hounds with their tails between their legs. Dafydd, deserted by his followers was reduced to hiding in a bog with his family, and perhaps a few faithful retainers. Alas, there are informers at every moment in time and in every corner of the earth, and the Snowdonia of 1283 was no exception.

The location of Dafydd’s bog bolt hole, where he was keeping his head down was revealed to Crown forces and so they sought him out. Spying the ominous sight of the armed men approaching, Dafydd’s people would have alerted him crying:

‘Duck, Daffy, duck, run and remember to duck Daffy, duck!

Run with speed and grace like a wild, noble mountain buck!’

There was to be no escape, and Dafydd, bound with chains was brought forth to Edward at Rhuddlan. For Edward it was a most joyous moment to be grimly and quietly savoured as he contemplated Dafydd’s eventual fate. The unfortunate Welsh leader was then to be taken from his homeland, to which he would never return, for trial at Shrewsbury in September 1283. True, Dafydd knew that the sentence would be death, but was he really aware of the precise nature of his inevitable execution?

The king certainly was; he had been indignant beyond belief at the manner in which Dafydd had taken Hawarden. He and his men had gained entrance to the castle on the holy day of Palm Sunday holding palm leaves as a sign of peace. Once inside they had put the entire garrison to the sword, sparing no one. To Edward, his conduct was unpardonable and the penalty would have to reflect the enormous gravity of his crime. He had rewarded Dafydd admirably for his service in Wales in 1277, now this. When Dafydd had appeared before Edward at Rhuddlun, the king did not mince his words:

‘I, in friendship clasped you, Dafydd to my bosom so close and firm!

Then I discovered you were nothing more than a wretched, disloyal little worm!’

But what to do? Was there a punishment that could possibly fit this terrible crime? Happily for Edward, someone whose identity has been lost in the mists of time, came up with the perfect solution. There was a new initiative regarding capital punishment, hanging, drawing and quartering. The intricacies were explained to Edward and he enthusiastically endorsed it as part of England’s penal code.

‘The felon is drawn to the place of execution lying low on a sledge. This signals to all that he is not fit to partake of the common air.

He is then suspended on a rope by the neck between the earth and heaven to show that he is worthy of neither!

His private parts are then to be hacked off to illustrate that he is totally unfit to beget any issue to live after him! The parts are to be presented to the felon so he may contemplate them, lying bloody in the palm of the executioner’s hand!

His abdomen is to be sliced open, and the entrails to be removed slowly and then burnt before his eyes. This is because his heart and other organs have harboured such terrible mischief, and therefore must be consumed by fire!

Finally, he is to be beheaded and the head to be placed on some high place. This is so the fowls of the air may peck and chew at it at their ease!’

This is what happened to Dafyyd at Shrewsbury, he was the first noble to be executed in such a fashion. Indeed he was the first, but he would not be the last. You might comment that such a horrible penalty could not possibly become a permanent feature of English law. On the contrary, the practice would continue in precisely the same form for another five centuries.